M. Waroquier

The efficacy of organophosphorus radicals as anticoking agents was subjected to a computational study in which a representative set of radicals derived from industrially relevant organophosphorus additives was used to explore competitive reaction pathways on the graphene-like coke surface formed during thermal cracking. The aim was to investigate the nature of the competing reactions of different organophosphorus radicals on coke surfaces, and elucidate their mode of attack and inhibiting effect on the forming coke layer by use of contemporary computational methods. Density functional calculations on benzene and a larger polyaromatic hydrocarbon, namely, ovalene, showed that organophosphorus radicals have a high propensity to add to the periphery of the coke surface, inhibiting methyl radical induced hydrogen abstraction, which is known to be a key step in coke growth. Low addition barriers reported for a phosphatidyl radical suggest competitive aptitude against coke formation. Moreover, organophosphorus additives bearing aromatic substituents, which were shown to interact with the coke surface through dispersive π–π stacking interactions, are suggested to play a nontrivial role in hindering further stacking among coke surfaces. This may be the underlying rationale behind experimental observation of softer coke in the presence of organophosphorus radicals. The ultimate goal is to provide information that will be useful in building single-event microkinetic models. This study presents pertinent information on potential reactions that could be taken up in these models.

The key step in the conversion of methane to polyolefins is the catalytic conversion of methanol to light olefins. The most recent formulations of a reaction mechanism for this process are based on the idea of a complex hydrocarbon-pool network, in which certain organic species in the zeolite pores are methylated and from which light olefins are eliminated. Two major mechanisms have been proposed to date—the paring mechanism and the side-chain mechanism—recently joined by a third, the alkene mechanism. Recently we succeeded in simulating a full catalytic cycle for the first of these in ZSM-5, with inclusion of the zeolite framework and contents. In this paper, we will investigate crucial reaction steps of the second proposal (the side-chain route) using both small and large zeolite cluster models of ZSM-5. The deprotonation step, which forms an exocyclic double bond, depends crucially on the number and positioning of the other methyl groups but also on steric effects that are typical for the zeolite lattice. Because of steric considerations, we find exocyclic bond formation in the ortho position to the geminal methyl group to be more favourable than exocyclic bond formation in the para position. The side-chain growth proceeds relatively easily but the major bottleneck is identified as subsequent de-alkylation to produce ethene. These results suggest that the current formulation of the side-chain route in ZSM-5 may actually be a deactivating route to coke precursors rather than an active ethene-producing hydrocarbon-pool route. Other routes may be operating in alternative zeotype materials like the silico-aluminophosphate SAPO-34.

An extensive benchmark of the electronegativity equalization method (EEM) and the split charge equilibration (SQE) model on a very diverse set of organic molecules is presented. These models efficiently compute atomic partial charges and are used in the development of polarizable force fields. The predicted partial charges that depend on empirical parameters are calibrated to reproduce results from quantum mechanical calculations. Recently, SQE is presented as an extension of the EEM to obtain the correct size dependence of the molecular polarizability. In this work, 12 parametrization protocols are applied to each model and the optimal parameters are benchmarked systematically. The training data for the empirical parameters comprise of MP2/Aug-CC-pVDZ calculations on 500 organic molecules containing the elements H, C, N, O, F, S, Cl, and Br. These molecules have been selected by an ingenious and autonomous protocol from an initial set of almost 500 000 small organic molecules. It is clear that the SQE model outperforms the EEM in all benchmark assessments. When using Hirshfeld-I charges for the calibration, the SQE model optimally reproduces the molecular electrostatic potential from the ab initio calculations. Applications on chain molecules, i.e., alkanes, alkenes, and alpha alanine helices, confirm that the EEM gives rise to a divergent behavior for the polarizability, while the SQE model shows the correct trends. We conclude that the SQE model is an essential component of a polarizable force field, showing several advantages over the original EEM.

Zeolites provide a unique setting for heterogeneous Brønsted acid catalysis, because the effects of the surrounding framework on fundamental reaction kinetics go well beyond what would be expected for a mere reaction flask. This aspect becomes very pronounced when bulky molecules form key intermediates for the reaction under study, which is exactly when the interaction between the framework and the intermediate is maximal. We will use the example of methanol-to-olefin conversion (MTO), and, more specifically, the constant interplay between the inorganic host framework and the organic hydrocarbon pool co-catalyst, to illustrate how zeolite confinement directly influences catalytic reaction rates. Theoretical calculations are used to isolate and quantify these specific effects, with the main focus on methylbenzenes in ZSM-5, as the archetypical MTOcatalyst. This review intends to give an overview of recent theoretical insights, which have proven to provide an ideal complementary tool to experimental investigations. In addition, we will also introduce the role of zeolite breathing in activating a catalytic cycle.