M. Bocus

The Operando Nature of Isobutene Adsorbed in Zeolite H−SSZ−13 Unraveled by Machine Learning Potentials Beyond DFT Accuracy

M. Bocus, S. Vandenhaute, V. Van Speybroeck
Angewandte Chemie int. Ed.
2024
A1

Abstract 

Unraveling the nature of adsorbed olefins in zeolites is crucial to understand numerous zeolite-catalyzed processes. A well-grounded theoretical description critically depends on both an accurate determination of the potential energy surface (PES) and a reliable account of entropic effects at operating conditions. Herein, we propose a transfer learning approach to perform random phase approximation (RPA) quality enhanced sampling molecular dynamics simulations, thereby approaching chemical accuracy on both the determination and exploration of the PES. The proposed methodology is used to investigate isobutene adsorption in H−SSZ−13 as prototypical system to estimate the relative stability of physisorbed olefins, carbenium ions and surface alkoxide species (SAS) in Brønsted-acidic zeolites. We show that the tert-butyl carbenium ion formation is highly endothermic and no entropic stabilization is observed compared to the physisorbed complex within H−SSZ−13. Hence, its predicted concentration and lifetime are negligible, making a direct experimental observation unlikely. Yet, it remains a shallow minimum on the free energy surface over the whole considered temperature range (273–873 K), being therefore a short-lived reaction intermediate rather than a transition state species.

Gold Open Access

Operando modeling of zeolite catalyzed reactions using first principle molecular dynamics simulations

V. Van Speybroeck, M. Bocus, P. Cnudde, L. Vanduyfhuys
ACS Catalysis
13, 17, 11455-11493
2023
A1

Abstract 

Within this Perspective, we critically reflect on the role of first-principles molecular dynamics (MD) simulations in unraveling the catalytic function within zeolites under operating conditions. First-principles MD simulations refer to methods where the dynamics of the nuclei is followed in time by integrating the Newtonian equations of motion on a potential energy surface that is determined by solving the quantum-mechanical many-body problem for the electrons. Catalytic solids used in industrial applications show an intriguing high degree of complexity, with phenomena taking place at a broad range of length and time scales. Additionally, the state and function of a catalyst critically depend on the operating conditions, such as temperature, moisture, presence of water, etc. Herein we show by means of a series of exemplary cases how first-principles MD simulations are instrumental to unravel the catalyst complexity at the molecular scale. Examples show how the nature of reactive species at higher catalytic temperatures may drastically change compared to species at lower temperatures and how the nature of active sites may dynamically change upon exposure to water. To simulate rare events, first-principles MD simulations need to be used in combination with enhanced sampling techniques to efficiently sample low-probability regions of phase space. Using these techniques, it is shown how competitive pathways at operating conditions can be discovered and how broad transition state regions can be explored. Interestingly, such simulations can also be used to study hindered diffusion under operating conditions. The cases shown clearly illustrate how first-principles MD simulations reveal insights into the catalytic function at operating conditions, which could not be discovered using static or local approaches where only a few points are considered on the potential energy surface (PES). Despite these advantages, some major hurdles still exist to fully integrate first-principles MD methods in a standard computational catalytic workflow or to use the output of MD simulations as input for multiple length/time scale methods that aim to bridge to the reactor scale. First of all, methods are needed that allow us to evaluate the interatomic forces with quantum-mechanical accuracy, albeit at a much lower computational cost compared to currently used density functional theory (DFT) methods. The use of DFT limits the currently attainable length/time scales to hundreds of picoseconds and a few nanometers, which are much smaller than realistic catalyst particle dimensions and time scales encountered in the catalysis process. One solution could be to construct machine learning potentials (MLPs), where a numerical potential is derived from underlying quantum-mechanical data, which could be used in subsequent MD simulations. As such, much longer length and time scales could be reached; however, quite some research is still necessary to construct MLPs for the complex systems encountered in industrially used catalysts. Second, most currently used enhanced sampling techniques in catalysis make use of collective variables (CVs), which are mostly determined based on chemical intuition. To explore complex reactive networks with MD simulations, methods are needed that allow the automatic discovery of CVs or methods that do not rely on a priori definition of CVs. Recently, various data-driven methods have been proposed, which could be explored for complex catalytic systems. Lastly, first-principles MD methods are currently mostly used to investigate local reactive events. We hope that with the rise of data-driven methods and more efficient methods to describe the PES, first-principles MD methods will in the future also be able to describe longer length/time scale processes in catalysis. This might lead to a consistent dynamic description of all steps─diffusion, adsorption, and reaction─as they take place at the catalyst particle level.

Quantum free energy profiles for molecular proton transfers

A. Lamaire, M. Cools-Ceuppens, M. Bocus, T. Verstraelen, V. Van Speybroeck
Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation
19, 1, 18–24
2023
A1

Abstract 

Although many molecular dynamics simulations treat the atomic nuclei as classical particles, an adequate description of nuclear quantum effects (NQEs) is indispensable when studying proton transfer reactions. Herein, quantum free energy profiles are constructed for three typical proton transfers, which properly take NQEs into account using the path integral formalism. The computational cost of the simulations is kept tractable by deriving machine learning potentials. It is shown that the classical and quasi-classical centroid free energy profiles of the proton transfers deviate substantially from the exact quantum free energy profile.

Insights into the mechanism and reactivity of zeolite catalyzed alkylphenol dealkylation

M. Bocus, V. Van Speybroeck
ACS Catalysis
12, 22, 14227–14242
2022
A1

Abstract 

In the stride toward the production of low-carbon-footprint commodity chemicals, the development of a complete wood biorefinery plays a pivotal role. The lignin fraction of wood can be depolymerized and demethoxylated mainly into 4-alkylphenols. These phenolic compounds can further catalytically be C-dealkylated within the H-ZSM-5 zeolite at relatively high temperatures and in the presence of steam, producing phenol and olefins. Experimentally, the dealkylation reaction was found to have two striking features: first, different reactants possess very different reactivity. 4-Ethylphenol (4-EP) is somehow less reactive than 4-n-propylphenol (4-n-PP), which is in turn much less reactive than 4-isopropylphenol (4-iso-PP). Second, cofeeding of steam in the reaction mixture was necessary to prevent rapid and reversible catalyst deactivation. Herein, a combination of static and dynamic density functional theory (DFT) simulations is used to unravel the molecular and mechanistic origin of these observations. Free-energy profiles obtained from static calculations confirm the experimentally observed reactivity sequence, where our computations show that the secondary nature of the alkyl carbon involved in 4-iso-PP dealkylation strongly stabilizes the respective transition states. To investigate the effect of water on the mobility of the reactive species and their interaction with the active site, we investigated the diffusion of phenol along the H-ZSM-5 straight channel in the presence of water loadings from 0 to 3 molecules per zeolite unit cell. We show that water has a strongly beneficial effect in promoting desorption and diffusion of phenol away from the Brønsted acid site through competitive adsorption and by the formation of hydrogen bond chains with the diffusing phenol. This effect could lead to a shorter residence time inside the zeolite, preventing active site poisoning and condensation to bulkier biphenylether moieties.

Nuclear quantum effects on zeolite proton hopping kinetics explored with machine learning potentials and path integral molecular dynamics

M. Bocus, R. Goeminne, A. Lamaire, M. Cools-Ceuppens, T. Verstraelen, V. Van Speybroeck
Nature Communications
14, 1008
2023
A1

Abstract 

Proton hopping is a key reactive process within zeolite catalysis. However, the accurate determination of its kinetics poses major challenges both for theoreticians and experimentalists. Nuclear quantum effects (NQEs) are known to influence the structure and dynamics of protons, but their rigorous inclusion through the path integral molecular dynamics (PIMD) formalism was so far beyond reach for zeolite catalyzed processes due to the excessive computational cost of evaluating all forces and energies at the Density Functional Theory (DFT) level. Herein, we overcome this limitation by training first a reactive machine learning potential (MLP) that can reproduce with high fidelity the DFT potential energy surface of proton hopping around the first Al coordination sphere in the H-CHA zeolite. The MLP offers an immense computational speedup, enabling us to derive accurate reaction kinetics beyond standard transition state theory for the proton hopping reaction. Overall, more than 0.6 μs of simulation time was needed, which is far beyond reach of any standard DFT approach. NQEs are found to significantly impact the proton hopping kinetics up to ~473 K. Moreover, PIMD simulations with deuterium can be performed without any additional training to compute kinetic isotope effects over a broad range of temperatures.

Gold Open Access

Mechanistic characterization of zeolite-catalyzed aromatic electrophilic substitution at realistic operating conditions

M. Bocus, L. Vanduyfhuys, F. De Proft, B.M. Weckhuysen, V. Van Speybroeck
JACS Au (Journal of the American Chemical Society)
2, 2, 502-514
2022
A1

Abstract 

Zeolite-catalyzed benzene ethylation is an important industrial reaction, as it is the first step in the production of styrene for polymer manufacturing. Furthermore, it is a prototypical example of aromatic electrophilic substitution, a key reaction in the synthesis of many bulk and fine chemicals. Despite extensive research, the reaction mechanism and the nature of elusive intermediates at realistic operating conditions is not properly understood. More in detail, the existence of the elusive arenium ion (better known as Wheland complex) formed upon electrophilic attack on the aromatic ring is still a matter of debate. Temperature effects and the presence of protic guest molecules such as water are expected to impact the reaction mechanism and lifetime of the reaction intermediates. Herein, we used enhanced sampling ab initio molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the complete mechanism of benzene ethylation with ethene and ethanol in the H-ZSM-5 zeolite. We show that both the stepwise and concerted mechanisms are active at reaction conditions and that the Wheland intermediate spontaneously appears as a shallow minimum in the free energy surface after the electrophilic attack on the benzene ring. Addition of water enhances the protonation kinetics by about 1 order of magnitude at coverages of one water molecule per Brønsted acidic site. In the fully solvated regime, an overstabilization of the BAS as hydronium ion occurs and the rate enhancement disappears. The obtained results give critical atomistic insights in the role of water to selectively tune the kinetics of protonation reactions in zeolites.

Gold Open Access

Shape-selective C–H activation of aromatics to biarylic compounds using molecular palladium in zeolites

J. Vercammen, M. Bocus, S. E. Neale, A. Bugaev, P. Tomkins, J. Hajek, S. Van Minnebruggen, A. Soldatov, A. Krajnc, G. Mali, V. Van Speybroeck, D. De Vos
Nature Catalysis
3, 1002-1009
2020
A1

Abstract 

The selective activation of inert C–H bonds has emerged as a promising tool for avoiding the use of wasteful traditional coupling reactions. Oxidative coupling of simple aromatics allows for a cost-effective synthesis of biaryls. However, utilization of this technology is severely hampered by poor regioselectivity and by the limited stability of state-of-the-art homogeneous Pd catalysts. Here, we show that confinement of cationic Pd in the pores of a zeolite allows for the shape-selective C–H activation of simple aromatics without a functional handle or electronic bias. For instance, out of six possible isomers, 4,4′-bitolyl is produced with high shape selectivity (80%) in oxidative toluene coupling on Pd-Beta. Not only is a robust, heterogeneous catalytic system obtained, but this concept is also set to control the selectivity in transition-metal-catalysed arene C–H activation through spatial confinement in zeolite pores.

Insight into the effects of confined hydrocarbon species on the lifetime of methanol conversion catalysts

I. Lezcano-Gonzalez, E. Campbell, A.E.J. Hoffman, M. Bocus, I.V. Sazanovich, M. Towrie, M. Agote-Aran, E.K. Gibson, A. Greenaway, K. De Wispelaere, V. Van Speybroeck, A.M. Beale
Nature Materials
19, 1081–1087
2020
A1

Abstract 

The methanol-to-hydrocarbons reaction refers collectively to a series of important industrial catalytic processes to produce either olefins or gasoline. Mechanistically, methanol conversion proceeds through a ‘pool’ of hydrocarbon species. For the methanol-to-olefins process, these species can be delineated broadly into ‘desired’ lighter olefins and ‘undesired’ heavier fractions that cause deactivation in a matter of hours. The crux in further catalyst optimization is the ability to follow the formation of carbonaceous species during operation. Here, we report the combined results of an operando Kerr-gated Raman spectroscopic study with state-of-the-art operando molecular simulations, which allowed us to follow the formation of hydrocarbon species at various stages of methanol conversion. Polyenes are identified as crucial intermediates towards formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, with their fate determined largely by the zeolite topology. Notably, we provide the missing link between active and deactivating species, which allows us to propose potential design rules for future-generation catalysts.

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